|
|
A STUDY ON THE ECOLOGY OF RIVER SWAT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
River Swat, the prominent feature of Swat Valley, originates, in the in the form of a network of torrent perennial streams in the permanent ice caps and glacial lakes of lofty mountain ranges, in the north extremes of the Swat Kohistan. The streams soon unite to form Gabral River and Ushu Gol, the confluence of which give rise to River Swat at Kalam.
The River Swat network has its roots in 643970 hectares of its watershed. It comes across with seven types of rocks within the altitudinal limits of 600-6000 meters. 1,734,933 individuals inhabit the area. 72, 14 and 13.8 percent of its population is distributed within the administrative boundaries of the districts of Swat, Malakand Agency (Batkhela Tehsil) and Dir District (Chakdara Tehsil) respectively. The catchment is divided on the basis of climate into tropical sub humid, humid subtropical, humid temperate, sub humid temperate and alpine regions. The altitudinal limits and prominent vegetation of each region are elucidated. Agroecologically the catchment was divided into six zones. The land use pattern along with the areas/localities included in each zone was also determined.
Ecologically, the network of River Swat was divided into the rushing river or Trout Ecology and sluggish river or Non Trout Ecology. The former occurs in Swat Kohistan, within the Monsoon free zone of sub humid temperate nature. Its high speed, low temperature and pH characterize the ecology of this zone. Rainbow Trout and Brown Trout are the dominant fishes in the cold water of this ecology. Broad-leaved trees of Maple (Acer caesium), Horse Chestnuts (Aesculus indica), Wild Cherry (Prunus cornuta) and species of Willow (Salix) are common in the ravines of this zone. The latter i.e., the sluggish river or Non Trout Ecology, prevails over the River Swat and its tributaries occurring in the areas of Lower, Central and Upper Swat with plentiful monsoon rains. Water in this zone is generally warm in summer, and is characterized by its shallow basin, mild speed and relatively high pH. Shizothorax are common in River Swat, whereas, Garra gotyla in its tributaries. Prominent hydrophytes of this ecology include the trees of Adler (Alnus nitida), Willow (Salix spp) and Poplar (Populus spp).
The direct and indirect role of man as an ecological factor in affecting the River Swat and its tributaries with special reference to water pollution, habitat loss, illegal fishing, depletion of recharge sources and biodiversity degradation is also elaborated. Fish fauna of the area is represented by 19 species which are exposed to excessive fishing, dynamiting, poisoning and electrocation. Birds were divided into 24 resident and 27 migratory species. Both the faunal and floral, biodiversity is under ecological stress in the catchment; particularly the wild mammals, birds and a number of plant species. An appendix of 235 plant species belonging to 85 families, their local and scientific names along with their economic uses, is also included in this report.
1. THE WATERSHED
The River Swat watershed is a masterpiece of natural beauty. Its geophysical and agro-climatic diversity supports a wide variety of wild plants and animals. The area spreads over 643970 hectares of land within the geographical limits of 3430 – 3555 North and 7145 – 7250 East. Its locationand political boundaries are shown in Figure 1. Physically the whole catchment of River Swat can be divided into the high mountains; a network of the meandering river and its tributaries; and the highly interrupted valley of the cenozoic origin. Administratively southern extremities of Swat Valley come under the administrative control of Malakand Agency and District Dir, whereas most of the area of the valley towards north is included in Swat District. The valley is bounded from all the sides by Hinduraj Mountains.
Most of the catchment is rugged, with wide altitudinal variations, ranging from 600 meters in the south to more than 6000 meters in the north. In the North particularly, the relief is so sharp in the main ridges (Jan and Mian, 1971) that, it reaches to more than 4000m, within a small distance of few kilometers. The highly varying topographic conditions not only affect the flow of water but also check the nature and distribution of its associated biodiversity.
2. THE RIVER SWATRiver Swat originates in the form of rushing perennial streams in the permanent ice caps and glacial lakes in Swat Kohistan. The streams unite to form Gabral River and Ushu Gol in the northern valleys of Gabral and Mahodand respectively. Both of these rivers flow southwards and after covering a distance of 35-40 km in their respective valleys join at Kalam forming the River Swat.
River Swat flow southwards in a narrow gorge (15-30m in width) from Kalam to Shagram. Though the gorge ends at Shagram, the narrow course of the river continues up to Talapanr. Downstream Talapanr the river spreads in the valley. It takes course nearly 400 meters widte till Boosaq in the extreme south of the valley. Downstream Boosaq, the river once again enters into a narrow gorge. It joins the River Panjkora and crosses the boundary of Swat Valley.
The melting snow and ice present in its northern watershed maintain the perennial flow of River Swat. The Monsoon rains in summer also supplement its flow.
3. IMPORTANT TRIBUTERIES
A large number of seasonal and perennial tributaries affect the flow, quality and productivity of the River Swat. Important tributaries are described below.
Down stream Kalam, Gahil Stream is the first large water body, which significantly contribute to the flow discharge of River Swat. It emerges from the glaciers of Gahil watershed and provides best site for trout feeding.
The Mankial Stream
Mankial stream emerges from the glaciers of Mankial valley and combines with the river Swat near Mankial.
The glacial lakes of Daral and Tarkana located in between Swat and Panjkora watersheds mainly fed Daral River. Its rushing water contributes much to the flow of River Swat. It joins the River on its right bank at Bahrain.
Chail Khwar
It originates in the Chail, Bashigram and Shinkoo watersheds at the northeastern extreme of the upper Swat. Chail khwar joins River Swat on its left bank at Madyan. The Stream favor trout culture and fed a number of commercial trout hatcheries established in its basin.
Bawari Khwar
It originates in Sakhra Catchment and joins River Swat at Kala kot. Its mild flow and warm water provides an ideal breeding site for Schizothorax species.
Haronai River
Haronai River originates in the high alpine of Spin Sar and is fed by an area of 46425 hactares watershed. It contributes much to the flow of River Swat and serves as the largest spawning ground for Schizothorax and mahasheer. It joins River Swat on its Right Bank near Koza Bama Khela. Garra gotyla is most frequently fish found in this river.
Manglawar Khwar
It originates in the moist temperate forest of Dowa Sari Mountain and joins River Swat near Manglawar. Though it contributes little to River Swat, it is an important breeding site for Schizothorax and mahasheer.
It originates in the northern face of mount Elum. On reaching Mingora and Saidu Sharif territories it becomes highly contaminated with various industrial and household refuse. Most of its water is used for irrigation. It enters River Swat in the form of a dead water body with a lot of pollutants.
A large number of streams in the lower Swat i.e. in Shamozai, Swat Ranizai and Adinzai, which were contributing much to the flow of River Swat in the recent past, now serve only as drainage basins of monsoon flood due to the loss of vegetation cover in these watersheds.
4. IMPORTANCE OF RIVER SWAT
The role of River Swat is two fold i.e. source and sink. As a source its role is evident everywhere in the socio-economic profile of the area. It provides water for drinking, irrigation and household uses. It is a source of generating hydal power, provides power for operating water mills and generation of electricity locally. It provides precious fish proteins and an easy source of earning as will. Its aesthetic beauty is a source of attraction for tourists. Its role as a sink is generally underestimated. It absorbs and degrades the natural, household, municipal, and industrial refuse.
5. THE PROBLEM
River Swat faces threats of contamination degradation and pollution. These threat have become more visible in the last few years because of rapid population growth , Industrialization, and uncontrolled, ill planned human and commercial settlements construction along the River bank e.g., Kalam, Bahrain, Madyan and Mingawara City. The varoious direct and secondary consequences of degradation and pollution of river ecology and quality are:
Historically, the catchment areas of River Swat always remained self sufficient in its natural resources and agricultural production (McMahon and Ramsay, 1901, Khalil, 1986 and Bellew, 1994). Archeological evidence shows that the valley of Swat was inhabited by man since 2400 BC (Ali and Khan, 1991; Stacule, 1971). It remained under the powerful domains of many civilizations, the most prominent among which is the Gandhara reported by the well known Chinese travelers Fa Hein, Song Yun, Hian Tsang and Wiking in 5th to 8th century AD (Shah, 1940; Hussain, 1962; Wylly, 1998). Fa Hein, who visited Swat area in 403 AD, reported its name as "Won-Chang" in Chinese meaning "park" in English and "Udyana" in Sanskrit (McMahon and Ramsay 1901). He has reported that the language of the people of Swat was similar to that spoken by the people in central India (McMahon and Ramsay 1901). Swat remained under Buddhist and Brahmin Maharajas for more than one thousands years whose engravings are still preserved on rocks in different parts of the valley.
River Swat, makes its way across a variety of geophysical and phytoecological formations in the catchment. These formations not only affect the quality of its water, and the associated life forms, but also determine the flow and speed of the river. Geological survey of the exposed rocks in the River Swat catchment (Jan and Tahirkheli, 1969; Jan, 1979; Rahman and Zeb, 1970) shows that during the geological history, various geophysical forces has given rise to various types of formation broadly divisible into mountains, plains and out-wash deposits. Various types of rocks, which come across the River Swat, are given in the Table 2.1 (annexure –1)
Very little is known about the biodiversity of River Swat. Most of the published work on the limnology of Swat is about fishes. Mirza (1973,1976,1980) is the pioneer who reported fish fauna of Swat. More valuable information regarding the fish fauna of the area are available in the publications of But (1986), But and Hayat (1978), Mirza (1975,1980,) and, Ahmad and Mirza (1963). Khan (1988) reported a variety of physical characteristics of River Swat. Khan (1991) analyzed the sulfur and Shah (1991) determined the Ca, Mg and pH content in River Swat. Alam (1991) analyzed the bottom mud of River Swat for its organic matter, suspended and dissolved solids, whereas, Iqbal (1991) analyzed River Swat for its current, depth, width, pH and free CO2. Muhammad (1991) and Ullah (1991), determined the Na, K, N, CO2 and chlorides in River Swat. All these studies concluded that, the water of River Swat was suitable for fish culture, household and domestic animal uses. WWF-Peshawar is involved in finding ways for the protection of freshwater network of Malakand Division. River Swat is an important part of this project. WWF has produced (Anonymous, 1999) a valuable report regarding fish resources and their problems in River Swat. A comprehensive survey on the limnology of River Swat and its tributaries is also conducted by RSCP, EPS (Ahmad, 1999). The survey revealed that, the high discharge rate of pollutants from Mingora municipality into Jambel Khwar has polluted it to such an extinct that, it has crossed all the WHO permissible limits of potability.
Depending upon the quantity of pollutants, water can broadly be classified into potable, contaminated and polluted water (Annexure -3). The water, which is clear tasteless, odourless and free of hostile agent, is classified as potable. Contaminated water seems to be clear, odorless and tasteless but it contains some of the hostile agents. The polluted water has turbidity, taste and odor, however it may or may not be contaminated with the hostile agents. Only potable water is fit for drinking.
Water can also be classified as hard or soft. Conventionally hardness is a measure of the capacity of water to react with soap i.e., hard water will requires more soap to form lather. Hardness may be temporary or permanent. Temporary hardness is due to the presence of bicarbonate of calcium, magnesium and other bivalent cations. Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling. Where as the permanent hardness is due to the presence of sulfate and chlorides of calcium and magnesium.
Phytogeographically most of the area of the valley comes under Sino-Japanese Region (Ahmad and Sirajuddin, 1996). The valley enjoys plentiful precipitation in the form of monsoon rains and has established Himalayan type of vegetation. The northern parts of the valley (Swat Kohistan) receive marginal summer Monsoon and heavy snowfall in winter. It comes under Irano-Turanian Region with Central Asian Type of vegetation. Though it is mainly the altitude, rainfall and temperature which determine the vegetation and general ecology of an area; the effect of exposure, topography and biotic pressure, especially the interaction of man has prominent role in determining floral composition of the forest.
Floristically too, most of the published work on the area is regarding the flora of its watershed (Stewart, 1967, 1972; Beg and Khan, 1974; Beg and Samad, 1974; Ahmad, 1995; Ahmad and Sirajuddin, 1995). Very little is published on the freshwater flora of Swat (Sarim et. al 1990, Sarim, 1991; Akhtar and Shah, 1991).
Published work is not available regarding the ecology of River Swat. The present report is the first attempt in this regard. Mostly the work done is on the meteorology of the area. Shah et. al (1994) reported the meteorological data for Chakdara a representative site of the ecology of Lower Swat. The data is reproduced in Annexure 2. Khan and Khan (1993) reported meteorological data for Mingora (Annexure 5) a representative site of the ecology of Central Swat. Concept for this survey was partly derived from, Gray (1999), Beeby (1995), Cox (1967) and Hussain (1989).
BACK
The study was initiated with the following aims:
Objectives
1. AN OVERVIEW OF THE WATERSHED For having an overview of the River Swat network, the area just starting from Village Boosaq in the extreme south to Mahodand in the north was visited in third to last weeks of September 1999. Altitudinal variation and its impact on the distribution of species was recorded. Besides visual observations, people of the area were also interviewed regarding the role and problems of River Swat, dynamics and distribution of flora and fauna, and general ecological changes which they observed as a result of the depletion of wetlands and forests.
2. ZONATION OF THE NETWORK
The area of River Swat network was divided in to four ecological regions on the basis of literature reviewed and information gathered during the overview. These regions are as given below.
3. ECOLOGICAL ZONATION OF THE LOTIC BODIES
For ecological zonation of River Swat and its tributaries both the physical and biological factors were considered. Beside others, the effects of temperature, rainfall, altitude and river basin, on the distribution of the indicator fish species and prominent tree flora was observed.
4. FISH FAUNA
For recording fish fauna visual observation, interviews with fishermen and fish dealers were conducted at Esar, Mingora, Guli Bagh and Madyan. Scientific information regarding fishes and wildlife were gathered/confirmed from the fisheries and wildlife specialists respectively.
5. LIMNOLOGICAL CHARACTERIZATION
For physico-chemical and bacteriological characterization of water, the findings of Ahmad (1999) were adopted.
6. ETHNOECOLOGY
For describing, ethnic groups in relation to the ecology of River Swat watershed, the findings of Barth (1956) were adopted.
7. VEGETATION
Classification of the vegetation type was based upon the distribution of climax forests. Description of the forest type was done according to Hussain and Ilahi (1991), Beg (1975), Beg and Khan (1974) and Champion et. al (1965). Plants were identified according to Nasir and Ali (1995), and Ali and Qaiser (1998).
8. FARMING SYSTEM AND AGROECOLOGY
The general land use and soil characteristics were visually studied. Information regarding the farming and agroecology were collected by semi-structured interviews. Its classification was according to the description of Beg et. al (1985), Naqvi and Rahmatullah (1962) and Ahmad et. al. (1997).
9. BIODIVERSITY SITUATION
For reporting, biodiversity, transect walks were undertaken in the representative valleys of the watershed. During transect walks, direct field observation and inquiries were made from local elders and hunters regarding the status of wildlife in their respective areas.
In Lower Swat the only representative natural patch of forest remained in Hazarnao (Mekhband Khwar catchment) was traversed from village Pir Khel in the foot hill to the hamlet Roth on the top of the mountain. Elum, the representative of central Swat was studied on two transects i.e. Marghuzar- Jaozano Kandao and Jambel- Kalail Kandao. Sham Sar, the representative ecosystem of moist temperate type of the upper Swat was studied from Karr Khwar (Miandam). Falakser Valley and Lai Kot Valleys, located on west and east of Bahrain-Mahodand Road were visited for recording biodiversity and vegetation types in Swat Kohistan. Except Lai Kot, which was nearly 6 Km, all other transects exceeded 8Km distance. The fieldwork was completed in the third week of November 1999.
BACK
The four main features of the ecology of River Swat are climate, the watershed in which River Swat originate and flows, the living beings dependent on the River and the network of water bodies. These components interact and modify each other the degree of modification varies according to the duration and intensity of the interaction. Results of the study regarding all these features with special reference to their impact on River Swat are presented bellow.
1. CLIMATE AND AGROECOLOGYDetails regarding the temperature, altitude, precipitation, and the climax vegetation type for each of the zone are given in Table 1.
TABLE 1 CLIMATIC ZONES OF SWAT OF THE RIVER SWAT NETWORK
S NO |
NAME OF THE ZONE |
ALTITUDE (m) |
TEMP. °C * |
PRECIPITATION (mm) |
CLIMAX VEGETATION |
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. |
Sub humid
tropical Humid subtropical Humid temperate Sub humid temperate Alpine |
Below 900 750-1500 1500-3500 1500-3500 3500-above |
04 04 06 06 07 |
625-1000 1000-1250 1000-1250 500-1000 500-1000 |
Reptonia ,Nannorophs, Phoenix Acacia modesta,Pinus roxberghii Pinus wallichiana,Q. dilatata Quercus baloota, Cedrus deodara Juniperus communi, Primula |
*
Temperature below 10°C (Months/Year)Lower and Central Swat occur in Sub humid tropical and Humid subtropical respectively (Figure 2). The river passes these, with its speed becoming sluggish downstream. It has relatively low depth and warm water. The Humid temperate and Sub humid Temperate Zones occur in Upper Swat and Swat Kohistan. In these the chilling water has torrential flow and more depth. Alpines are mostly restricted to Swat Kohistan with permanent ice caps.
Seven agroecological zones were recognized for the catchment on the basis of the agricultural landuse, cropping pattern and the geo-climatic conditions. The zones along with their altitudinal ranges and landuse pattern table 1B.
TABLE 1B. AGROECOLOGICAL ZONES IN THE RIVER SWAT CATCHMENT
S. No |
ZONE |
ALTITUDE (M). |
LAND USE |
AREAS INCLUDED |
1 |
Sub tropical |
600-1000 |
Double cropping, some tropical and temperate fruits. |
Most of the area of Chakdara, Batkhela and Barikot Tehsils |
2 |
Humid Temperate |
1000-1500 |
Double cropping, temperate fruits and vegetable. |
Plains and foot hills of Matta, Khawazakhela and Charbagh Tehsils |
3 |
Cool temperate |
1500-1900 |
Double cropping and some temperate fruits. |
The side-valleys e.g. Miandam, Malam, Sangar, Shawar, Sakhra and Dabargi. |
4 |
Cold temperate |
1900-2300 |
Monocropping of potato and maize. |
Upper limits of the side valleys e.g. Mianbanr, Sulatnnr, Ushu and Gabral. |
5 |
Sub-alpine |
2300-3600 |
No agriculture, Livestock grazing and forest products. |
The high altitude forests of Sham Sar, Spin Sar, Daral and Ladoo. |
| 6 | Alpine | 3600-4600 | Mainly used as grazing pastures and medicinal plant collection. | The high altitude meadows of Loi Pandghalae, Daral, Sedgai, Boosaro Sar and Gabhral. |
| 7 | Cold Desert | 4600-6000 | Sources of perennial flow of the River Swat | High peaks of the adjoining Chitral areas, Falak Ser and Mankial glaciers. |
2. POPULATION AND ETHNOECOLOGY
The area is occupied by more than 1.7 million of people (Table 2), comprised of three, distinct ethnic groups (Barth, 1956), i.e. Pathans, Gujars and Kohistanis, exploiting different ecological niches (Figure 3). Pathans mainly depend upon agriculture, exploit the deep soil of the alluvial plains, generally with irrigation systems. The climate in the plains is hot in summer and two crops a year are harvested from their fields. Vegetation of the Pathans exploiting ecology is generally scrubby.
TABLE 2: POPULATION OF SWAT VALLEY
S. NO. |
ADMINISTRATIVE UNIT |
POPULATION |
%age |
1. |
District Swat | 1,249,572 |
72.03 |
2. |
Batkhela Tehsil | 247,441 |
14.16 |
3. |
Chakdara Tehsil | 235,920 |
13.80 |
TOTAL |
1,734,933 |
99.99 |
|
Fig 2
Source: Anonymous, 1998.
Gujars though highly defused among Pathans, occupy the foothills and high altitude areas. They practice both agriculture and livestock herding. They comprise forest-associated communities and prefer colder climate. The monocrop supporting areas are occupied by Gujars.
Kohistanis are concentrated in the northern mountain gorges of Swat Kohistan. They occupy the monsoon-excluded ecology of sub-humid to dry temperate nature. They also practice both agriculture and livestock herding, live in cold climate and cultivate one crop in a year.
3. ECOLOGICAL ZONATION OF RIVER SWAT
The River Swat network is divided in to two ecological regions on the basis of flow of River, climatic conditions and the fish fauna.
It is restricted to Swat Kohistan, represented by the torrent cold water, dominated by the Brown Trout (Salmo trutta fario) and Rainbow Trout (S. gairdneri) and is therefore also referred to as the trout ecology zone.
It spreads over the River Swat and its tributaries in the Swat valley particularly in lower and central regions. Water of this region is warm and sluggish represented by the Schizothorax (snow trout) and associated fishes. This habitat is neither visited by the brown nor rainbow trout and is therefore recognized as non-trout ecology. An overview of the characteristics of these ecologies is presented below.
3.1 The Trout Ecology
This zone occurs in Swat Kohistan and extended downstream up to Madyan Bridge. The high mountains are characteristics of this zone. The area receives heavy snowfall during the winter. Most of the flow of the river is due to the snowmelt (Priest, 1962) and the water temperature in this region rarely exceeds 200c in the month of July (Ahmad, 1999).
Swat Kohistan receives very little summer monsoon and is therefore placed in the sub humid temperate type of climate (Fig 2). The river flows in the narrow gorge with deep basin of limited width (15-30 m). There are little seasonal temperature variations due to high flow rate and the narrow basin of the river. The Brown Trout (Salmo trutta fario) and Rainbow Trout (S. gairdneri) dominate this area.
TABLE 3: AN OVERVIEW OF THE ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF THE RIVER SWAT NETWORK
S NO |
VARIABLE | TROUT ECOLOGY |
NON-TROUT ECOLOGY |
1 |
Areas included | Swat Kohistan |
Upper Swat, Central Swat and lower Swat |
2 |
Origin of water | Mostly the melting snow |
Mostly rain recharge |
3 |
Summer water temperature | Never exceeds 20 °C |
Mostly above 20 °C particularly in the tributaries |
4 |
Common fishes | Salmo trutta fario (Brown Trout) and S. gairdneri (Rainbow Trout) | Schizothorax esocinus and S. progastus labiatus (Snow Trout) and Garra gotyla |
4 |
Associated trees | Birch, Maple, Wild cherries, Horse Chest nuts and Deodars | Adlers, Willows, Figs, poplars, Willows and Mulberries |
5 |
Water speed | Torrent |
Sluggish |
6 |
Algal flora | Mostly green algae |
Mostly blue green |
7 |
pH Values | Low |
High |
The torrent water currents do not allow angiosperms to be established in the riverbed. The adjoining moist rocks however develop a variety of hepatics, mosses, ferns and cyanophyts. Among broad-leaved trees maples, willows, horse chestnuts, birds cherry, Diospyros and poplars are prominent in the ravines of Swat Kohistan. Birch, Deodar, Chalghoza pine, spruce, blue pine, yew and fir are the common conifers of the slopes.
3.2 The Non trout Ecology
The area downstream Madyan constitute non-trout type of ecology, covering all the tributaries and River Swat occurring in the lower, central and upper Swat territories of the valley. The speed of the River becomes mild due to its spacious course and shallow basin. The water temperature raises gradually downstream. Its the warm water ecology and is dominated by Schizothorax fishes. In Monsoon season its discharge increases temporarily and gives rise to recurrent floods in the valley. Diverse cyanophytes, chlorophytes, chrysophytes, bacillarophytes, and some lower trachaeophytes inhabit the river and its tributaries. The plant life not only provides oxygen for the aquatic organisms but also maintain equilibrium in the ecosystem. Common among the hydrophytic trees are Adler, willows and poplars. Adler, the nitrogen-fixing tree, adds more towards the biological production of the water body and fertility of the soil (Mills, 1980; Newbold and Holmes, 1983).
4. VERTICAL ZONATION
The four zone occuring in River Swat are described in Table 4.
TABLE 4: VERTICAL ZONATION OF FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM OF RIVER SWAT
S NO |
NAME OF THE ZONE |
WATER DEPTH |
IMPORTANT PLANT TYPES |
IMPORTANT AMIMAL TYPES |
1 |
Deep Water Zone | More than1m | Phytoplanktons, diatoms, floating algae like Spirogyra and Zygnema. | Zooplanktons, insect larvae and fishes |
2 |
Shallow Water Zone | Up to 1m |
Rooted hydrophytes Ranunculus aquitalis Potomogeton, Sagitaria and Achorus. | Crustaceans, small fishes, frogs, kingfishers, ducks and gulls etc |
3 |
Marsh Zone | Less than 30 cm |
Rushes, orchids, sedges, Pedicularis, mosses, hepatics and trees like Salix, Alnus, and Populus. | Starlings, Insects, birds, frogs, snipes, stilts and teals etc. |
4 |
Flood plain Zone | Scarce |
Tamaricaria, Artimisia, Saccharum, Chenopodium, Salix and Calotropis etc. | Vipers, Larks, Starlings, orioles wagtails, stilts and rollers etc. |
5. FISH FAUNA OF THE RIVER SWAT
Aquatic resources of NWFP, consist of a stockable length of 2408 km of rivers (equal to an area of 24069.5 hectares, assuming that mean width of rivers is 1000 meters); a stockable area of 1678 hectares in the form of natural lakes, of which Swat constitute 270 km stockable length of rivers (River Ushu 45 km for trout, Utror 35 Km for trout, River Swat 45 km for trout and 145 km for non-trout fishes) and 1440 hectares of stockable area of natural lakes (Bashi gram 430, Kundal 680 and Mahodand 330 hectares, all for trout) (Butt, 1986).
After Pakistan came into existence, Dr. Nazir Ahmad, the first Director of Fisheries Department of Pakistan (then West Pakistan) was the pioneer to study fishes from various parts of Pakistan. After him the major work was done by Dr.M.R. Mirza of Department of Zoology, Govt. College Lahore, Pakistan. Other workers have also made valuable contribution to the study of this region. Ahmad and Mirza (1963 a & b) and Mirza(1963) were the first to record 8 species of fish from Swat, including two new Iocohes. Ahmad (1969) added two more species to the list. Mirza (1973) added 4 more species to the fishes of Swat and adjoining areas. Another species was recorded from Buner valley making a total of 15 species from Swat and the adjoining areas of Buner and Dir. Brown trout (Slamo trutta ferio) and rainbow trout (S. gairdneri) were introduced here in 1928 and 1973 respectively (Butt, 1986). Their lethal temperature starts from 230C upward (Aston and Brown, 1978) and hence can only be found in the river and its tributaries occurring in Swat Kohistan. Tor putitora, (Mahasher), is the warm water fish, which is found in the lower Swat area. Three species of snow trout i.e., Schizothorax esocinus, S. richardsonii plagiostomus and S. progastus labiatus are the common delicious Swati fishes (Mirza, 1976) of the non-trout ecology of River Swat and can frequently be caught in the tributaries during the months of April and May. Garra gotyla, is the most common warm water fish and abundantly found in almost all of the streams in the non-trout ecology.
Among others Triplophysa griffithi naziri, T. stenurus choprai, Glyptosternum reticulatum, Schizocypris brucei, Schistura alepidotus and S. naseeri are the common fishes of River Swat network. The incidence of various types of fishes in lower Swat is given in table 4. Fish resources in River Swat face a variety of threats (Anonymous, 1999), the most important among which are:
TABLE 5: INCIDENCE OF THE COMMON FISHES IN RIVER SWAT
S NO |
NAME OF THE SPECIES |
INCIDENCE (%) |
| 1 | Barilius vagra pakistanicus | 10.12 |
| 2 | Channa punctatua | 7.95 |
| 3 | Crassocheilus diplocheilus | 3.40 |
| 4 | Garra gotyla | 3.97 |
| 5 | Glyptosternum reticulatum | 2.84 |
| 6 | Glyptothorax stocki | 5.11 |
| 7 | Mastacembelus aromatus | 2.27 |
| 8 | Puntius ticto | 6.81 |
| 9 | Salmo gairdneri | 3.97 |
| 10 | Salmo trutla fario | 2.27 |
| 11 | Schizothorax esocinus | 2.84 |
| 12 | Schizothorax progastus labiatus | 3.97 |
| 13 | Schizothorax richardsonii plagiostomus | 26.13 |
| 14 | Shistura alepidotus alepidotus | 1.70 |
| 15 | Tor putitora | 10.22 |
| 16 | Triplophysa stenurus choprai | 4.54 |
| 17 | Triplophysa grifthii naziri | 7.95 |
According to a survey report of WWF (Anonymous, 1999) 27,% of the fishermen practice fishing in River Swat as a sole profession, 53% for supplementing their livelihood and 20% for recreation. Sampling was done in 20 villages of Swat Valley. 68% of the villages witnessed dynamiting; contributing 2-50% of the fish catch from the sampled area. Electrocuting was observed in 45% villages and contributes to 58% of the total fish catch in these villages. Similarly, poisoning was observed in 23% of the sampled area contributing to 2-20% of the total fish catch. These destructive practices are generally more frequent in the lower flow season i.e. winter. Netting and angling being the legal practices contribute 10-100% of the fish catch in the sampled area.
6. LIMNOLOGY OF RIVER SWAT
6.1 Physical Characteristics
Detailed limnological studies of the River Swat and its tributaries (Ahmad, 1999) revealed that, the temperature, pH, alkalinity, hardness, Conductivity, and content of water (Table 6), is in the normal potability range. Whereas, in the case of tributaries, the total solid content was generally high, still under the maximum potability limits of WHO standard.
TABLE 6: PHYSICAL CHARCTERISTICS OF THE WATER OF RIVER SWAT AND ITS TRIBUTARIES
S NO |
LOCALITY |
WATER BODY |
TEMP. °C |
PH |
COND. µ8/cm |
TS mg/l |
TSS mg/l |
TDS mg/l |
ALK mg/l |
HAD. Mg/l |
1. |
Kalam Bridge | River Swat | 10 |
7.81 |
37.6 |
400 |
60.0 |
340 |
5.00 |
12.0 |
2. |
Peshmal Bridge | River Swat | 10 |
7.90 |
35.2 |
200 |
40.0 |
160 |
7.00 |
12.0 |
3. |
Bahrain | Tributary | 11 |
7.90 |
20.0 |
1000 |
580 |
420 |
6.50 |
9.0 |
4. |
Madyan Hatchery | Tributary | 11 |
8.23 |
37.5 |
600 |
280 |
320 |
5.00 |
10.0 |
5. |
Ranzra Pul | River Swat | 10 |
7.08 |
35.8 |
400 |
200 |
200 |
4.00 |
12.0 |
6. |
Rahat Kot Bridge | Tributary | 17 |
7.56 |
40.7 |
800 |
320 |
480 |
7.00 |
23.0 |
7. |
Bama Khlea | River Swat | 11 |
7.92 |
40.2 |
580 |
320 |
260 |
5.00 |
10.0 |
8. |
Matta Bridge | Tributary | 19 |
7.98 |
195.1 |
240 |
140 |
100 |
9.00 |
40.0 |
9. |
Kuladher Bridge | Tributary | 20 |
7.71 |
310 |
600 |
200 |
120 |
14.00 |
61.0 |
10. |
Punjiram | River Swat | 14 |
8.07 |
67.6 |
300 |
80 |
400 |
5.00 |
25.0 |
11. |
Gammon Bridge | River Swat | 14 |
8.17 |
54.7 |
600 |
140 |
460 |
5.00 |
12.0 |
12. |
Pul Chawkai | River Swat | 14 |
7.26 |
55.8 |
200 |
80 |
120 |
5.00 |
11.0 |
Highest TSS (1000 mg/l) was recorded in the sample collected from Daral Khwar. Which was probably due to the impurities in the melting glaciers, torrent flow, and chemistry of the rocks and the short distance from the source. The total dissolved solids were maximum in Barwai Khwar (480 mg/l).
6.2 Chemical Characteristics of water
Dissolved Oxygen, which determines the health and self purifying capacity of any water body was the lowest in Jambel Khwar (5.9 mg/l) still high than the minimum required limits i.e., 5mg/l of WHO. Biological oxygen demands, which is directly proportional to the quantity of oxidizable organic matter, remained under the normal limits 7.5 mg/l down stream up to Mingora (Table 7), but at once reaches to 11.6 mg/l at Panjigram after receiving polluted water from Jambel Khwar. This situation is gradually improved downstream at Gammon Pul and Pul Chawkai where the quantity of BOD recorded was 9.6 and 5.86 mg/l respectively.
TABLE 7: CHEMICAL CHARCTERISTICS OF WATER FROM RIVER SWAT AND ITS TRIBUTARIES
S NO |
LOCALITY |
WATER BODY |
DO mg/l |
BOD mg/l |
COD mg/l |
NO3+N mg/l |
NO2+Nmg/l |
NH3+N mg/l |
S mg/l |
SO4 mg/l |
PO4 mg/l |
CL mg/l |
1. |
Kalam Bridge | River Swat | 9.6 |
1.34 |
25.0 |
0.10 |
1.130 |
1.34 |
0.80 |
88.71 |
2.34 |
15.90 |
2. |
Peshmal Bridge | River Swat | 9.6 |
2.80 |
15.0 |
1.80 |
1.801 |
2.80 |
1.76 |
76.50 |
1.57 |
14.90 |
3. |
Bahrain | Tributary | 9.8 |
2.66 |
15.0 |
0.20 |
1.609 |
2.66 |
0.80 |
73.84 |
9.65 |
8.90 |
4. |
Madyan Hatchery | Tributary | 10 |
3.34 |
15.0 |
1.10 |
0.696 |
3.24 |
2.40 |
36.62 |
8.62 |
9.90 |
5. |
Ranzra Pul | River Swat | 9.65 |
2.54 |
5.0 |
0.60 |
2.953 |
2.54 |
1.70 |
68.36 |
1.67 |
9.90 |
6. |
Rahat Kot Bridge | Tributary | 7.4 |
3.48 |
5.0 |
1.50 |
3.565 |
3.48 |
0.80 |
59.0 |
5.65 |
5.60 |
7. |
Bama Khlea | River Swat | 6.2 |
2.54 |
15.0 |
0.80 |
2.913 |
2.54 |
2.40 |
98.88 |
9.32 |
20.80 |
8. |
Matta Bridge | Tributary | 6.9 |
2.00 |
5.0 |
0.60 |
3.697 |
2.00 |
1.60 |
92.77 |
10.85 |
8.90 |
9. |
Kuladher Bridge | Tributary | 5.9 |
11.6 |
45.0 |
1.60 |
12.09 |
11.60 |
12.2 |
330 |
10.17 |
21.80 |
10. |
Panjigram | River Swat | 7 |
6.94 |
25.0 |
0.60 |
2.478 |
0.94 |
0.70 |
89.11 |
12.71 |
10.90 |
11. |
Gammon Bridge | River Swat | 6.9 |
9.60 |
5.0 |
0.60 |
1.130 |
9.60 |
2.40 |
88.71 |
11.67 |
6.90 |
12. |
Pul Chawkai | SwatRiver | 7.1 |
5.86 |
12.0 |
0.70 |
3.565 |
5.86 |
0.90 |
96.8 |
10.3 |
10.90 |
Source: Ahmad, 1999.
Chemical oxygen demand is a very useful tool for the determination of the quantity of domestic waste in a water body. In River Swat and its tributaries its value was high than the normal acceptable limits. Similarly ammonia determines the quantity of organic pollutants. The concentration of ammonia falls under the acceptable range till downstream Mingora where effluents from Mingora are added to the River through Mingora Khwar and as a result the acceptable limit of 2.00 mg/l is crossed.
The nitrite content in all the samples except that collected from Jambel Khwar (12.09 mg/l) proved within the normal range of potability (Table 5.6.4). Whereas the concentration of nitrates in all the water bodies were within the acceptable limits of water quality. Concentration of chlorides and phosphates were lower, whereas sulfide content in all the samples were higher than the WHO standards. Furthermore, the concentration of sulfates were higher than the potable limits except in the water collected from Jambel Khwar. Where it was 330 mg/l, showing the large-scale addition of domestic waste into the water body.
Extracted
from: Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 2nd ed. |
||
Chemicals of health significance in drinking-water |
||
WHO standards for drinking water (mg/litter) |
||
| Antimony | 0.005 (P)a |
|
| Arsenic | 0.01b (P) |
|
| Barium | 0.7 |
|
| Beryllium | ||
| Boron | 0.5 (P) |
|
| Cadmium | 0.003 |
|
| Chromium | 0.05 (P) |
|
| Copper | 2 (P) |
|
| Cyanide | 0.07 |
|
| Fluoride | 1.5 |
|
| Lead | 0.01 |
|
| Manganese | 0.5 (P) |
|
| Mercury (total) | 0.001 |
|
| Molybdenum | 0.07 |
|
| Nickel | 0.02 (P) |
|
| Nitrate (as NO3-) | 50 (acute) |
|
| Nitrite (as NO2-) | 3 (acute) 0.2 (P) (chronic) |
|
| Selenium | 0.01 |
|
B. Organic constituents |
||
| Guideline value (µg/litter) | ||
| Chlorinated alkanes | ||
| Carbon tetrachloride | 2 |
|
| Dichloromethane | 20 |
|
| 1,1-dichloroethane | ||
| 1,2-dichloroethane | 30b |
|
| 1,1,1-trichloroethane | 2000 (P) |
|
| Chlorinated ethenes | ||
| Vinyl chloride | 5b |
|
| 1,1-dichloroethene | 30 |
|
| 1,2-dichloroethene | 50 |
|
| Trichloroethene | 70 (P) |
|
| Tetrachloroethene | 40 |
|
| Aromatic hydrocarbons | ||
| Benzene | 10b |
|
| Toluene | 700 |
|
| Xylenes | 500 |
|
| Ethylbenzene | 300 |
|
| Styrene | 20 |
|
| Benzo[a]pyrene | 0.7b |
|
| Chlorinated benzenes | ||
| Monochlorobenzene | 300 |
|
| 1,2-dichlorobenzene | 1000 |
|
| 1,3-dichlorobenzene | ||
| 1,4-dichlorobenzene | 300 |
|
Bacteriological quality of drinking-water (WHO Standards) |
|
| Organisms | Guideline value |
All water intended for drinking |
|
| E. coli or thermotolerant coliform bacteriab,c | Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample |
Treated water entering the distribution system |
|
| E. coli or thermotolerant coliform bacteriab | Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample |
| Total coliform bacteria | Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample |
Treated water in the distribution system |
|
| E. coli or thermotolerant coliform bacteriab | Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample |
| Total coliform bacteria | Must not be detectable in any 100-ml sample. In the case of large supplies, where sufficient samples are examined, must not be present in 95% of samples taken throughout any 12-month period |
TABLE 8: CONCENTRATION OF METALS IN RIVER SWAT AND ITS TRIBUTARIES
S. NO |
PLACE |
WATER BODY |
SODIUM mg/l |
POTASSIUM mg/l |
COPPER mg/l |
CADMIUM mg/l |
LEAD mg/l |
1. |
Kalam Bridge | River Swat | 2.44 |
0.1608 |
0.2 |
0.3 |
0.8 |
2. |
Peshmal Bridge | River Swat | 2 |
0.108 |
0.06 |
0.13 |
0.08 |
3. |
Bahrain | Tributary | 0.88 |
0.56 |
0.08 |
0.08 |
0.06 |
4. |
Madyan Hatchery | Tributary | 0.64 |
0.8 |
0.06 |
0.1 |
0.2 |
5. |
Ranzra Pul | River Swat | 4 |
0.106 |
0.04 |
0.04 |
0.2 |
6. |
Rahat Kot Bridge | Tributary | 1.5 |
3 |
0.04 |
0.04 |
0.14 |
7. |
Bama Khlea | River Swat | 2.412 |
1.6 |
0.04 |
0.06 |
0.1 |
8. |
Matta Bridge | Tributary | 2.32 |
6.3 |
0.04 |
0.06 |
0.12 |
9. |
Kuladher Bridge | Tributary | 8 |
24.12 |
0.06 |
0.04 |
0.2 |
10. |
Punjiram | River Swat | 2.44 |
2.2 |
0.08 |
0.04 |
0.16 |
11. |
Gammon Bridge | River Swat | 1.28 |
1.7 |
0.06 |
0.08 |
0.26 |
12. |
Pul Chaukai | River Swat | 1.7 |
2.2 |
0.04 |
0.04 |
0.12 |
Source: Ahmad, 1999
6.3 Bactreiological Charateristic
The Escherichia coli count, which directly determines the faecal contamination of water, was of intermediate risk values up stream and down stream Kalam. While rest of the sampling areas of River Swat and its tributaries show high risk of faecal contamination. The water of Jambel Khwar proved to be at the very high-risk level of potability (Table 9).
TABLE 9: COLIFORM COUNTS IN RIVER SWAT AND ITS TRIBUTARIES
S.NO. |
PLACE |
WATER BODY |
COLIFORM/ 100ml H2O |
1. |
Kalam Bridge |
River Swat |
17* |
2. |
Peshmal Bridge |
River Swat |
45* |
3. |
Bahrain |
Tributary |
150** |
4. |
Madyan Hatchery |
Tributary |
35* |
5. |
Ranzra Pul |
River Swat |
350** |
6. |
Rahat Kot Bridge |
Tributary |
550** |
9. |
Kuladher Bridge |
Tributary |
1800+*** |
10. |
Punjiram |
River Swat |
900** |
11. |
Gammon Bridge |
River Swat |
275** |
12. |
Pul Chaukai |
River Swat |
550** |
Potability Risk:
*Intermediate, **high, *** Very highMAN AS AN ECOLOGICAL FACTOR
Man is the most powerful and highly organized ecological factor, who plays with natural resources directly or indirectly, both, willingly or unwillingly. His propulsion for getting more has disrupted the natural balance globally. The impact of man on River Swat (has been or is)can be direct or indirect.Direct Impact
Water Pollution
Traditionally most of the older settlements were established apart from the lotic bodies. The settlements and streams/rivers were generally separated by the wetlands i.e. marshes or rice paddies, which served as filtering media for the village effluents. Besides the sporadic growth of residential settlements, the last couple of decades have also witnessed mushroom growth of hotels along River Swat. These hotels are discharge their solid and liquid wastes directly to the river. The human settlements along the river or its tributaries increase the pollution.
In Kalam, there were only two hotels 1982 but now there are more than 150 hotels and restaurants in the town, providing 3000-bed space to the tourists. Most of these hotels have no septic tanks or soaking pits and discharge sewage to the river, cause shooting up the faecal count from 17 upstream to 45 downstream Kalam (Table 5.6.4). Similarly increased contamination associated with high potability risk is observed downstream each settlement, the highest being at Panjigram (downstream Mingora) due to the addition of the Mingora City wastes through Mingora Khwar.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is a situation when the release of phosphates and nitrates or organic matter into the water body reach to such an extant that oxygen level in the water drops that ultimately results in an evident change in faunal composition of the water body. Though eutrophication occurs mainly in lakes due to the accumulation of organic matter but similar situation has occurred in Jambel Khwar (Table 4.6) due the huge amount of organic waste being discharged to the stream by the inhabitants of Mingora that resulted in increased BOD of the stream water. Consequently the stream cannot support the animal life.
Heavy Metal Toxicity
Most of the industrial (particularly the cosmetics) and automobile waste add toxic materials like, nickel, lead, mercury, selenium, zinc, cadmium and lead (Table 4.6c). Wastes from the marble industry and the emerald mine contribute significantly to alkaline pollution of water in River Swat.
The Loss of Wetlands
Riparian wetlands, once quite abundant along the River Swat and its tributaries have been converted in to the agricultural fields. These wetlands not only provide spawning grounds for fishes but also sanctuary for a variety of migratory birds. It also provided food and shelter to new fish stock before they were strong enough to use river for their nourishment. In past a limited acreage of these wetlands were cultivated as monocrop rice paddies and remained as fallow marshes for the rest of the year. Recently the mass cultivation of poplars in wetlands created water stress condition, probably due to excessive transpiration from the wetlands. The wetlands were thus converted into croplands affecting the aquatic biodiversity severely. The magnificent swamps of Carex indica, Scabiosa tripartita, Potomogeton, Ranunculus, Hydrilla, Valasneria, Sagittaria, Chara and Achorus etc. have been permanently vanished.
One of the important wetlands located in the south of Matta town was called Chaqar. Having a few trees of Salix. The Ruler of Swat protected it as game reserve. Which was providing habitat for thousands of waterfowls besides, fishes and other aquatic life, till the merger of Swat State in 1969. Later on it was planted with poplars, converted into cropland and nowadays it is rapidly transforming into residential and commercial buildings. Other such wetlands have been connected to rice paddies, along River Swat in Lower and Central regions of Swat Valley. The wetlands in Kohistan are not intervened so seriously uptill now.
The riparian wetlands associated with the river are seriously threatened ecosystems in the area. They are suffering from problems like drainage, reclamation for agriculture, hydrological manipulation, ill-planned flood protection structures, exotic species invasion and excessive harvest of its biological resources. All these threats (existing and potential) have put a tremendous pressure on their hydrological, biogeochemical and biological attributes. Manipulation of the hydrology of wetlands due to agricultural practices, construction of houses, ramparts, etc. has deprived an appreciable wetland acreage of its required natural hydrological regime that is a pre-requisite for the maintenance of the structure and function of these transitional ecosystems. These wetlands lying across the Indus Fly Way provide home to a variety of migratory species, besides the resident wetlands/water dependent species. Restoration of the hydrological and biological characteristics of these ecosystems is desperately needed to control at least partially the following river associated problems:
Genocidal fishing and hunting practices
The destructive fishing practices of dynamiting, electrocuting and poisoning of water and the ruthless shooting of game birds is disrupting ecological balance. The illegal fishing practices are being carried out during the low flow season. The fish population in tributaries is almost vanished. But in the high flow seasons the tributaries receive some fish supply again from the River Swat. Unlike fishes, the innocent game birds got little natural protection and high exposure to the shots of the hunters, that is why a very few birds (5-10%) may escape from shooting down.
Uncontrolled Population Growth
Most of the man made problems are associated with poorly managed population increase and unplanned settlement growth. Historically this area remained highly populated (McMahon and Ramsay, 1901; Bellew, 1994; Khalil, 1986 and, Ali and Khan, 1991). However in the couple of decades it increased both horizontally and vertically resulting in the enhancement of family number and family size respectively. The uncontrolled population growth associated with the natural demand for more food, availability of potable water, agricultural and recreational lands, sanitation, health, roads, capital and cultural amenities, created pressure on the natural resources especially on the health of water bodies. It is clear from the pollution survey of River Swat (Ahmad, 1999) that, at some places e.g. Mingora, the unplanned growth associated with the unavailability of proper sanitation facility most of the refuse goes directly to the nearby streams. Few years’ back the people used the water of these streams for drinking, household uses swimming and irrigation etc. But the unwise use associated with population explosion has changed this resource into a liability.
Besides its direct effects, it was also observed that, the unplanned population resulted in over lopping, deforestation, overgrazing and terrace formation, resulting in the increased runoff of rainwater, accelerated soil erosion, landslides, decreased soil fertility and silting problems in the valley. All these practices have depleted the water conservation capacity of the mountain ranges and have therefore resulted in reduced recharge.
Indirect Impact
The indirect impact of man on River Swat and its tributaries includes depletion of recharge sources, silting, agricultural seepage and the depletion of biodiversity. These are summarized bellow.
Depletion of Recharge Sources
It was noticed during the survey that, the mountains having good forest cover have perennial springs and those who have lost the forests, have lost the spring water as well. Forests conserve rainwater through minimizing evaporation, dispersing rainwater and retarding its runoff, and providing better soil for water absorption. The denudation of Mekhband, Thana, Chakdara, Shamozai and Kabal watersheds not only resulted in increased runoff and accelerated erosion. But has also lost its conservation potential for the recharge of springs and stream water everywhere in the watersheds. The reduced flow in these streams have created a stress condition for the aquatic life, especially the breeding population of fishes.
Silting Problem
Deforestation in the river catchment is causing land and soil erosion. The eroded material under the influence to rainwater or snowmelt makes their way to the river and its adjoining wetlands. Erosion not only results in diminishing soil fertility of the catchment but its deposition in the bed cause changes of watercourses. Siltation is also affecting the water quality. It causes turbidity in the water bodies. Most of the native fishes of River Swat prefer clear water both for dwelling and breeding, their existence and reproduction is therefore hampered with the turbidity.
Agricultural Runoff
The role of River Swat as a sink is not fully recognized. Though most of the agricultural wastes are directly disposed off to the river. But its torrent flow; and expanded basin rectifies the effects of agricultural wastes. The leaching fertilizers and pesticides could have caused serious problems of salinity and biodiversity degradation in River Swat. But the high relief of the catchment, heavy recharge of the river and low input of farmer do not produce prominent effect on the quality of water. Practically whatsoever is added to the river in the form of agricultural waste are mostly drained out of the valley.
Depletion of Biodiversity
One of the prominent features of the River Swat and its tributaries is its biodiversity. After originating from the alpines, the water passes across a variety of herbs, deciduous and evergreen temperate forest, the low-lying alders and willows associated with diverse birds fauna. Biodiversity contributes in one way or the other to the health and continuity of the water body. An interesting example in this regard is the Alder, a tree growing across the river basin. It is nitrogen fixing and contributes a substantial amount of dissolved nutrients, such as nitrates to the water.
Their leaves contains four times as much as nutrients available in the leaves of other deciduous trees (Goldman, 1961; Mills, 1980). It also prevents over shading, maintains soil fertility, control erosion and flood damages. Their roots provide habitat for young fishes. The Alder leaves are a source of nutrients in the water. Besides providing fuel, timber and packing material, it also allows access for recreation and streams management. The recently introduced fast growing monoclones are interfering with the natural ecosystem e.g., the introduction of popular into the hydrophytic habitat of River Swat have not only replaced alder and willow, but have also reclaimed the wetlands due to its excessive transpiration rate. Hence a single exotic fast growing species have not only replaced the competitor trees but have also ruined home for a variety of endemic wetland floral and faunal associations.
BIODIVERSITY SITUATION (status)
Biodiversity is a global concern (Josephson, 2000; Christen, 2000). A complete record of biodiversity of the area as well is still awaited. The systematic/ taxonomic work reported on biodiversity of the area is generally concerning the species of apparent economic importance. The floral and faunal diversity of River Swat and the associated area are given below:
Floral Diversity
Trees species of Betula, Salix, Acer, Aesculus, Prunus are associated with the ravines in upper swat and swat Kohistan. In central Swat the river bed trees comprises Alnus, Salix and Populus, whereas in the lower Swat Populus and Salix form the main feature of the river bed. 45 species of hepatics have been reported from this area (Sirajuddin, 1986).
Besides embryophytes a variety of microorganisms inhabit a variety of ecological conditions mostly due to their inter-specific and intra-specific diversity, enormous numbers, and plasticity. They serve both as producers and decomposers, making essential balance in the aquatic ecosystem and regulate the food chains. Though there is generally a dearth of knowledge regarding the microflora of River Swat. However, Sarim (1989), Sarim (1991), Sarim et. al (1990), Shah (1992) and Akhtar and Shah (1999) reported 4, 6, 12, 106 and 73 species of algae from River Swat and its tributaries. Floral diversity of the area comprises 66 species of cultivated crops divisible into nine types of commodities (Ahmad and Sirajuddin, 1986) and 1473 species of angiosperms. Among which 311 are monocots and 1162 being dicot. Ferns and fern allies which prefer the moist and shady rocks of streams and river include 55 species. Gymnosperms exclusively representing the mountain watersheds, being 13 species in number. Locally these plant resources have their specific and general uses. Economic uses of some of the plant species met within the watershed are given in Appendix 6.
As no baseline data is available on the frequency and cover of species diversity of the area, therefore, it is difficult to determine the conservation status of a species. However the visual observation shows that most of the floral diversity is under stress. The stress varies from place to place depending upon access and need of the users, ecological amplitude of the species, habitats losses, palatability of species, regeneration capacity and limits of tolerance of the species concerned. Some of the important species, which are under severe stress, are given in table10.
Table 10: SOME OF VULNERABLE PLANT SPECIES OF THE RIVER SWAT WATERSHED
S.No. |
Species |
Local name |
Cause of degeneration |
| 1 | Acer cappadocium |
Tarkana |
Habitat loss |
| 2 | Aconitum chasmanthum |
Zahar Mora |
Over collection |
| 3 | Aconitum heterophyllum |
Atis |
Over collection |
| 4 | Aconitum violaceum |
The Ghra Zahar zahar | Over collection |
| 5 | Acorus calamus |
Skhawaja |
Habitat loss |
| 6 | Aesculus indica |
Jawaz |
Lopping PppppressureOver use |
| 7 | Calotropis procera |
Spalmai |
Habitat loss |
| 8 | Caralluma tuberculate |
Pamankae |
Over use |
| 9 | Carex indica |
Taspa bootai |
Habitat loss |
| 10 | Cedrela cerrata |
Skhawounae |
Unknown |
| 11 | Colchicum luteum |
Soranjan Talkh |
Over collection |
| 12 | Litsea monopetala |
Meda Chob |
Over collection |
| 13 | Podophyllum emodi |
Gangora |
Over use |
| 14 | Prunus cornuta |
Changa |
Lopping |
| 15 | Quercus glauca |
Serai |
Over use |
| 16 | Reptonia buxifolia |
Gwargwara |
Over use |
| 17 | Rhododendron arboreum |
Gul Namer |
Habitat loss |
| 18 | Ulmus wallichii |
Kahae |
Habitat loss |
Faunal Diversity
Like plants, no baseline data exists on animal diversity at species or genetic level. However some historical reports (McMahon and Ramsay, 1901; Bellew, 1994; and Khalil, 1986) elaborates that, the Swat Valley always remained rich in agricultural produce as well as natural resources, particularly wildlife and fishes. Khushal Khan Khattak, the celebrated Pushto poet visited Swat in 17th century AD and expressed his feelings regarding the biodiversity of Swat in his famous poem " Swat Nama" as;
Translation of the stanzas
Source: (Khalil, 1986)
The high population pressure, habitat loss and the unchecked hunting of wildlife, particularly during the last quarter of the 20th century has diminished, the wildlife to such an extent that, the existence of falcon in Swat seems theoretical. The incidence of chackor and waterfowl has become rare. The waterfowls are generally shot in the air before landing. Still a number of resident (Table 12) and migratory birds (Table 13), mammals and reptiles can be observed in the area of river Swat catchment, most of them have become rare (Table 11).
Among mammals Snow Leopard (Panthera uncia) may be traced in the northern glaciated alpines. Musk Dear (Moschus moschiferus), Markhor (Capra falconeri), hare and ibex (Capra ibex) can only be recorded in the tree line birch forests. Black Bears (Selenarctos thibetanus) and Brown Bears (Selenarctos arctos) of limited incidence can also be observed in the tree line iron oaks and birch forests. Grey Goral (Naemorhedus goral), which was common three to four decades back, has become rare. All these animals prefer high altitudes, generally above 2500 meters. Monkeys are still common in high mountain ranges. Hyenas, Jackals, Leopards, Pigs, Porcupines, Hares, Jungle cats and Hedgehogs are of rare incidence.
TABLE 11: DISTRIBUTION AND STATUS OF WILDLIFE ASSOCIATED WITH RIVER SWAT
| S No | VERNICULAR NAME | HABBIT | HABITAT | STATUS |
| 1 | Black bear | Resident |
Moist temperate forests | Threatened |
| 2 | Brown bear | Resident |
Alpine scrub | Threatened |
| 3 | Chakor partridge | Resident |
Dry hillsides and ravines | Rare |
| 4 | Common leopard | Resident |
Conifer forests | Threatened |
| 5 | Coots | Migratory | Water bodies | Rare |
| 6 | Cranes | Migratory | Water bodies, marshes | Rare |
| 7 | Egrets | Migratory | Water bodies | Rare |
| 8 | Geese | Migratory | Water bodies | Rare |
| 9 | Goral | Resident |
Temperate forest | Threatened |
| 10 | Grey partridge | Resident |
Dry foot hill scrubs | Rare |
| 11 | Gulls | Migratory | River Swat and its tributaries | Rare |
| 12 | Herons | Migratory | Water bodies | Rare |
| 13 | Himalayan Ibex | Resident |
Above tree line | Threatened |
| 14 | Himalayan snow cock | Resident |
Alpine scrubs and pastures | Threatened |
| 15 | Kalij pheasant | Resident |
Sub tropical forests | Endangered |
| 16 | Koalas pheasant | Resident |
Temperate forests | Rare |
| 17 | Mallard | Migratory | Water bodies | Rare |
| 18 | Monal pheasant | Resident |
Moist temperate forests | Threatened |
| 19 | Musk deer | Resident |
Alpine scrub | Threatened |
| 20 | Pigeon | Migratory | Crop fields and meadows | Rare |
| 21 | Pintail | Migratory | Water bodies | Rare |
| 22 | Pochard | Migratory | River Swat and its tributaries | Rare |
| 23 | Rhesus monkey |
Resident |
Mostly Conifer forest | Threatened |
| 24 | Rudy Shelduck | Migratory |
Water bodies | Rare |
| 25 | See-see | Resident |
Dry and stony scrubs | Rare |
| 26 | Shelduck | Migratory | Water bodies | Rare |
| 27 | Shoveler | Migratory | River Swat and its tributaries | Rare |
| 28 | Snow leopard | Resident |
Cold deserts | Endangered |
| 29 | Snow partridge | Resident |
Alpine pastures | Threatened |
| 30 | Terns | Migratory | Water bodies | Rare |
| 31 | Western tragopan | Resident |
Tree line forests | Endangered |
| 32 | Wolf | Resident |
Scrubby hills | Threatened |
Source: modified from Anonymous, 1992.
Among reptiles Diadema, Ladacensis, Mucosus, Ventrimaxulatus and Zamenis are fairly distributed. Cobras and Crates generally prefer the rained plains whereas, Vipers can generally be found in the stony flood plains of the River Swat. Lizards of various kinds are found frequently. The most prominent among reptiles is the innocent Varanus spp, which is about a meter in length. The wildlife in Swat, whether aquatic or terrestrial is mostly under the threats of habitat losses, excessive hunting etc.
AVIAN FAUNA
Resident and migratory birds assoicated with River Swat and its tributaries are presented below.
The Resident Birds
The species living throughout the year in a particular area are referred to as the resident species. The commonly occurring resident species in Swat are presented in table 12.
The Migratory Birds
Some of the birds visit the catchment area during their breeding season. A list of the migratory birds recorded for this region is given in table 4.7.2. Variety of birds like brown dipper, Ned starts, robins, threshes, a large number of water fowl and waders pass through the valley are unidentified, which needs to be identified.
TABLE 12: THE COMMON RESIDENT BIRDS OF THE RIVER SWAT CATCHMENT
| S.NO | SCIENTIFIC NAME | COMMON NAME | LOCAL NAME |
| 1 | Acridotheres fuscus | Common myna | Kharo |
| 2 | Adlectoris chukar | Chakor | Zarka |
| 3 | Alcedo atthis | Common kingfisher | Shin kwanae |
| 4 | Amoperdix griseogularis | See-see | Se-sai |
| 5 | Ceryle rudis | Pied kingfisher | Karae |
| 6 | Corvus splendens | House crow | Qargha |
| 7 | Francolinus francolinus | Black partridge | Taro |
| 8 | Francolinus pondicerianus | Grey partridge | Tanzarae |
| 9 | Halcyon smyrnenais | White breasted kingfisher | Kirkirak |
| 10 | Lanius schach | Bay backed shrike | Teghak |
| 11 | Lerwa lerwa | Snow partridge | Warookay goria |
| 12 | Lophophorus impejanus | Monal pheasant | Lait |
| 13 | Lophora leucomelana | Kaleej pheasant | Zangaly charg |
| 14 | Passer domestics | House sparrow | Chanchanra |
| 15 | Pucrasia macrolopha | Koklas pheasent | Baiger |
| 16 | Pycnonotus cafer | Red vented bulbul | Balbala |
| 17 | Pycnonotus leucogenys | White cheeded bulbul | Balbala |
| 18 | Streptopelia decaocto | Collared dove | Korkorai kaotra |
| 19 | Tettaogallus himalayensis | Snow cock | Goria |
| 20 | Turdoides caudatus | Common babbler | Sourae |
| 21 | Upopa epops | Hoopoe | Mula Chargak |
TABLE 13: MIGRATORY BIRDS OF THE RIVER SWAT CATCHMENT
S. NO |
SCIENTIFIC NAME | COMMON NAME | LOCAL NAME |
| 1 | Anas acuta | Pintail | Tarlakay |
| 2 | Anas creeca | Common teal | Kach Shingharae |
| 3 | Anas platyrhynchos | Mallard | Shin Satay |
| 4 | Anas querquedala | Shoveller | Plan Makhokay |
| 5 | Ayathya ferina | Common pochard | Soor Sarai |
| 6 | Carpodacus erythrinus | Common rose pinch | Sper sarai |
| 7 | Corocias bengalensis | Indian roller | Shintagh |
| 8 | Cotornix coromendelica | Rain quail | Nwaraz |
| 9 | Dicaeum erythrorhynchos | Tickell’s flower pecker | Chatae |
| 10 | Dicrurus caerulescens | Black drongo | Toranraka |
| 11 | Galerida cristata | Crested lark | Khrara |
| 12 | Gallinago gallinago | Common snipe | Chaghat |
| 13 | HimAntopus himanhopus | Stilt | Chaghat |
| 14 | Hirundo rustica | Common swallow | Totakarkay |
| 15 | Motacilla alba | White wagtail | Speerlakay |
| 16 | Motacilla citreola | Yellowheaded wagtail | Zairaqa |
| 17 | Motacilla flava | Yellow wagtail | Zairaqa |
| 18 | Motacilla maderaspatensis | Large pied wagtail | Speerlakay |
| 19 | Oriolus oriolus | Golden oriole | Pilaoroo |
| 20 | Pericrocotus flanous | Scarlet minivet | Liala majnoon |
| 21 | Phipaiura aureola | White breasted fantail | Teghstargai |
| 22 | Phyloscopus collybita | Brown chiffchaff | Tarae |
| 23 | Prinia cringer | Brow hill warbler | Chatae |
| 24 | Seicerus xantroschistos | Grey headed flycatcher | Chatae |
| 25 | Sturnus pagodarum | Brahminy myna | Jabanai kharo |
| 26 | Sturnus valgaris | Common starling | Sakhaka |
| 27 | Tersiphore paradise | Paradise flycatcher | Poonai |
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
SOCIAL MOBILIZATION
Public participation is the prime endeavor for the sustainable development and conservation initiatives. For the effective public participation community organization is a prerequisite. Successful social mobilization for the effective participation in conservation initiatives is therefore imperative. Hence social organization and training for the protection of River Swat is immediately needed. Following are expected benefits to be achieved from social organization.
Environmental Awareness
People of the area are generally ignorant regarding the importance of environmental degradation and its negative impact on River Swat and the socioeconomic condition of the people. It is therefore imperative to educate people regarding the environmental problems of River Swat so that they may be able to:
BIODIVERSITY SITUATION
Very little is known regarding the species diversity of River Swat. An Independent study on its floral and faunal diversity is imperative. Which will:
WISE MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES
The resource base of River Swat is shrinking day by day due to depleting wetlands, misuse of biodiversity and denudation of its recharge base. The situation can only be tackled through:
POLLUTION CONTROL
The increased refuse disposal to River Swat is a serious threat, which not only impede the carrying capacity of River Swat but also affect the socioeconomic condition of the people. It is imperative to:
LACK OF COORDINATION
Lack of coordination among communities, line departments and NGOs do not allow them to play to their role in the conservation efforts. An effective liaison is therefore imperative to:
UNCONTROLLED POPULATION GROWTH
The uncontrolled population growth particularly, near the watercourses is a serious threat to the carrying capacity of River Swat. Population management and settlements planning are imperative through:
POVERTY
Poverty and ignorance are the root causes of the natural degradation. Low-income groups settled on the riverside have generally adopted fishing for their subsistence. Starting poverty alleviation activities in these villages will:
MASSIVE TREE PLANTATION
Degraded watersheds and the flood plains need massive tree plantation of the endemic species. The extension of agroforestry especially in the terraced watersheds will:
Khan, M. A. 1999. Annual progress report 1998- 99. ARSN Mingora, Swat.
Ahmad, H. 1999. Swat valley and millennium 2000: a perspective of the natural resources
Abbasi,H.A. 1996. NWFP development statistics 1995 - 96. Bureu of Statistics, PE&DD, Government of NWFP, Peshawar.
Ahmad,H. 1995. Conservation of Biodiversity: a threat to the global genetic resources with special reference to Pakistan. Udyana Today, EPS, Swat, 2: 1-2.
Aston, R.J and D.J.A. Brown, 1978. Fish forming in heated effluents. Pastakia C.M.R. (ed) Proc. Conf. Fish form and wastes. 4-5 January Lodon, 39-62 .
Mirza, M.R. 1976. Fish and fisheries of the northern submontan region of Pakistan Biologia 22:107-120.
Butt, J.A, 1986. Fish and Fisheries of North West Frontier Province (NWFP) Pakistan. Biologia, S.S. 21-35 pp
Ahmad,H. 1999. Issues regarding medicinal plants of Pakistan. Edina Today, EPS, Swat, 6(3): 6-7.
Ahmad,H. and Sirajuddin 1996. Ethnobotanical profile of Swat. Pro. First Train. Workshop Ethnob. Appl. Concerv., Islamabad.
Ahmad,R. 1997. Ethnobotanical Studies of Sulatanr valley Swat. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Botany, Islamia College, Peshawar University.
Ali,S.I. And M. Qaiser 1986. A phytogeographical analysis of the phenarogames of Pakistan and Kashmir. Proc. Royal Soc. Edinburg, 89, : 89 - 101.
Ali,U. 1981. Swat valley. Eelum 1980-81, Government Jahan Zeb Post Graduate College Saidu Sharif, Swat.
Ali,U. and M. A. Khan 1991. Origin and diffusion of settlements in Swat valley. Pak. J. Geog. Soc. 1 & 2: 97 - 115.
Anonymous 1978. Daira Maarife-e-Islam. University of the Punjab Lahore, 17:563 - 565.
Anonymous 1986. Paksitan Census of Livestock 1986. Agricultural Census Organization, Statistics Department, Government of Pakistan.
Anonymous 1994. Pear production and marketing. Venture report of 1993 activities MFVDP/ARSN, Swat.
Anonymous 1995a. Forestry in NWFP. NWFP Forest Fisheries and Wildlife Department, Social Forestry Project Malakand/Dir.
Anonymous 1995b. pakistan Statistical yearbook 1995. FBS, Statistics Division Government of Pakistan.
Anonymous 1997. Economic Survey 1996 - 1997. Government of Paksitan. Finance Divsion, Economic Advisor’s Wing, Islmabad.
Aumeeruddy, Y. 1994. Local represetation and Managment of Kerinci Selbat National Park, Samatra, Indonesia. People and Plants working paper No 3, UNESCO, Paris, France.
Aumeeruddy, Y. and B. Sansonnens 1994. Shifting from simple to complex agroforestry systems: an example for buffer zone management from Kerinci Sumatra Indonesia. Agroforestry systems, 28: 113-141.
Barth, F. 1956. Ecologic relationships and the ethnic groups in Swat, North Pakistan. American Anthropologist, 58(6): 1079-1089.
Barth, F. 1995. The last Wali of Swat. An autobiography as told to Fredrik Barth. White Orchid Press Bangkok.
Beg, A. R. and A. S. Khan 1974. Flora of Malakand Division Part A. The Pak. J. Forest. 23 (2): 171 - 185.
Bellew, H.W. 1994. A general report on Yousafzais. Sang-e-Meel Publications Lahore, Pakistan.
Bhatti, M.A. 1997. Annual Progress Report for the year 1996-97 Agroeconomic Unit Agricultural Research Station (North) Mingora, Swat.
Bowles, G.T. 1977. The People of Asia. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London.
Graf, B. 1996. Integrated pest and disease management in malakand apple orchards. MFVDP/ARSN Swat.
Hussain, A.A. 1962. The story of Swat as told by the founder. Feroz Sons Ltd. Peshawar.
Ibrahim, M.1997. The non timber forest products of Malakand Agency: potential species and their economics. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Botany, Islamia College Peshawar University.
Jan, M. Q. 1979. Petrography of the amphibolites of Swat and Kohistan. Pak. Geo.Rev.,51-65.
Jan, M. Q. and I. Mian.1971. Preliminary geology and petrograhy Of Swat Kohistan. Geo. Bull. Univ. Peshawar. 6 : 1-32.
Khalil, H. 1986. Swat Nama, the Khushal Khan Khattak (in pushto). Markazee Khushal Adabi Wa Saqafatie Jerga, Akora Khattak, Pakistan.
Khan, A.H. 1983. 1981 - District Census report of Swat. Population Census organization, Statistics Division Government of Pakistan, Islamabad.
Khan, H.M.U. and S.U. Khan 1986. Agricultural statistics of North West Frontier Province for 1985-86. Improved Crop Estimate Project. Department of Agriculture NWFP.
Khan, M. and J. Khan 1993. Etiology, Pathology and Control of root rot of apple in Swat. Agricultural Research Station (North) Mingora, Swat NWFP.
Khattak. G.M. 1997. Background paper for devloping the strategy for sustainable managment of grazing lands in NWFP. IUCN, Peshawar.
McMahon, A.H. and A.D.G. Ramsay 1901. Report on the tribes of Dir, Swat and Bajawar together with the Utman-Khel and Sam Ranizai. Saeed Book Bank Peshawar.
Pinstrup-Andersen, P. and R. Pandya - Lorch 1994. Alleviating poverty, intensifying agriculture, and effectively managing natural resources. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington DC, USA.
Shah, S. S. H., S. M. Chaghtai and J. Shah 1994. Phytosociological study of Ambela Pass, Buner, NWFP Pakistan. I spring vegetation. Khyber Scientific, 7: 71-91.
Shah, T.V. 1940. Ancient India. From 900 B.C. to 100 A.D. vol III and IV. Shashikant & Co. Baroda, India.
Stacule, G. 1969. Excavation near Ghaligi and chronological sequence of protohistorical cultures in Swat valley. East and West, IsMeo Seiries 20:92 (Cited from Ali & Khan, 1991).
Stewart, R.R. 1967. Chick list of the plants of Swat State, North West Pakistan. The Pakistan Journal of forestry 427-529.
Teyn,M.V.B.V. 1996. Land-Use of Matta Tehsil. PATA Publication No. 117. Islamic Republic of Pakistan, Government of NWFP, Department of Planning and Development.
Wylly, H. C. 1998. The borderland, the country of the pathans. Indus Publications, Karachi.
Zim, H.S. and A.C. Martin 1963. Trees: A guide to familiar American trees. A golden nature guide. Golden Press, New York.
Zundel, C. 1995. Comparison of a farming systems map with other planning basis. MFVDP/ARSN. Mingora, 202-206.